![]() ![]() Moreover, there is an increasing demand for efficient and rapid acquisition of high-resolution, high-precision DSMs. Many studies have confirmed the effectiveness of these technologies in geoscience research, geomorphic monitoring or environmental management. The demand for generating digital surface models (DSMs) from unmanned aerial systems (UASs) images by structures from motion (SfM) techniques has increased significantly. We demonstrated the self-made attachable UAS-PPK module to be a reliable and accurate survey tool in geoscience applications. The results showed that the accuracy was close to that of traditional aerial survey methods, having an average error of less than 3 cm. The same 99 VPs were used to evaluate the accuracy of the digital surface model produced using UAS-PPK. ![]() After adding one GCP, the RMSE of three dimensions was close to that of traditional aerial survey methods using 12 GCPs, having a vertical accuracy of 2.51 cm. The results showed that this UAS-PPK module could deliver high-precision aerial surveys with a root mean square error (RMSE) of less than 4 cm for three dimensions without using control points. To evaluate the accuracy of the aerial surveys of the custom-built module and digital surface models, we used 15 checkpoints (CPs) and 99 validation points (VPs). This study proposes a novel and low-cost system for direct georeferencing using unmanned aerial system post-processing kinematics (UAS-PPK), which is less than a quarter of the price of commercially available products. Traditional indirect georeferencing requires time-consuming and labor-intensive field surveys to obtain ground control points (GCPs), making it challenging to apply in high-risk areas with limited accessibility.
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